William C. Quantrill and the Lawrence Massacre

William Clarke Quantrill was a Confederate captain during the American Civil War and was responsible for the Lawrence massacre, which was one of the worst and bloodiest events in the war. Quantrill was born in Ohio in 1837. He decided to become a schoolteacher as a young man and started his profession. However, he decided to leave Ohio to try and make more money for himself and his family. At this time, Kansas was deeply embroiled in violence between pro-slavery and free-soil proponents. He had grown up in a Unionist family, and he himself espoused Free Soil beliefs. He found it hard to make money in Kansas and, after returning home for a time, decided to quit his profession and sign up as a teamster from Fort Leavenworth. His mission in Leavenworth was to resupply the Federal Army embroiled in a fight against the Mormons in Utah. During this mission, he met numerous pro-slavery Southerners who deeply affected his beliefs. By the time he returned from his mission, he had become a staunch Southern supporter. He also found that he could make much more money through thievery. Thus, Quantrill began a much less legitimate career. When the Civil War began, he gathered a small band of men and began making profitable hit-and-run attacks against the Federal troops. Quantrill's Deeds Quantrill and his men staged numerous raids into Kansas during the early part of the Civil War. He was quickly labeled an outlaw by the Union for his attacks on pro-Union forces. He was involved in several skirmishes with Jayhawkers (pro-Union guerilla bands) and eventually was made a Captain in the Confederate Army. His attitude towards his role in the Civil War drastically changed in 1862 when the Commander of the Department of Missouri, Major General Henry W. Halleck ordered that guerrillas such as Quantrill and his men would be treated as robbers and murderers, not normal prisoners of war. Before this proclamation, Quantrill acted as if he were a normal soldier adhering to principals of accepting enemy surrender. After this, he gave an order to give no quarter. In 1863, Quantrill set his sights on Lawrence, Kansas which he said was full of Union sympathizers. Before the attack occurred, many female relatives of Quantrills Raiders were killed when a prison collapsed in Kansas City. The Union Commander was given the blame and this fanned the already fearsome flames of the Raiders. On August 21, 1863, Quantrill led his band of about 450 men into Lawrence, Kansas. They attacked this pro-Union stronghold killing over 150 men, few of them offering resistance. In addition, Quantrills Raiders burned and looted the town. In the North, this event became known as the Lawrence Massacre and was vilified as one of the worst events of the Civil War. The Motive Quantrill was either a Confederate patriot punishing northern sympathizers or a profiteer taking advantage of the war for his own and his mens benefit. The fact that his band did not kill any women or children would seem to point to the first explanation. However, the group did wantonly kill men who were most likely simple farmers many without any real connection to the Union. They also burned numerous buildings to the ground. The looting further suggests that Quantrill did not have purely ideological motives for attacking Lawrence. However, in response to this, many of the Raiders are said to have ridden through the streets of Lawrence yelling Osceola. This referred to an event in Osceola, Missouri where Federal Officer, James Henry Lane, had his men burn and loot both Loyal and Confederate sympathizers indiscriminately. Quantrill's Legacy as an Outlaw Quantrill was killed in 1865 during a raid in Kentucky. However, he quickly became a celebrated figure of the Civil War from the southern perspective. He was a hero to his supporters in Missouri, and his fame actually helped several other outlaw figures of the Old West. The James Brothers and the Youngers used the experienced they gained riding with Quantrill to help them rob banks and trains. Members of his Raiders gathered from 1888 to 1929 to recount their war efforts. Today there is a William Clarke Quantrill Society dedicated to the study of the Quantrill, his men and the border wars.

My Career As A Nurse - 1890 Words

This world offers so many career opportunities, from being an elementary teacher to a yoga instructor to a cardiologist. The job variety is endless, and anyone has the potential at becoming a professional in the career of their dreams. I’ve always known I wanted to go college, and now I know I want to become a nurse anesthetist. Since I was little, I haven’t always dreamed of becoming a nurse anesthetist. When I was younger if someone would ask me what I wanted to be when I got older, I would say I wanted to be a singer, a teacher, or a chef, and that answer would change on a regular basis. Even recently now I’ve changed my future career from being a physical therapist to a psychiatrist to a registered nurse. A registered nurse spends an average day in the hospital assisting and managing patients with medicine, documenting information, and communicating with supervisors, peers, and subordinates. A registered nurse that specializes in anesthesia, which is a nurse anesthetist, will always be doing specific tasks such as: administering anesthesia to patients before and during surgery and they care for and monitor patients before, during, and after surgery. I would love to become a nurse anesthetist, because I want to be able to help care for others and I want to be in an environment where I am helping patients recover and helping with pain. After doing research and asking many questions, I’ve become dead set on becoming a nurse anesthetist. In the medical field, aShow MoreRelatedMy Career As A Nurse939 Words   |  4 Pagesdoing in my nursing career in the upcoming five years. I have many hopes and dreams I hope to fulfill in my future career as a nurse. I want to be thriving and making the differences I am deeply committed to. I want to establish strong relationships with not only my patients, but my peers as well. I want to be exceptionally skillful in my field to the point of educating others and lending a helping hand any where possible. More than anything I want to be extremely effective and efficient in my careerRead MoreMy Career As A Nurse Essay1153 Words   |  5 PagesThroughout our lives, we will encounter different people that will leave imprints in our career. Some of them will lift you up and some will bring you down. The person that I am sharing with you is someone that inspired me to forgo my pursue of my Master’s degree. The reason I picked this person is because she isn’t only a mentor, but someone that I look up to and rely on when I have questions. As a young registered nurse, we need someone to lean on especially when working the night shifts. ResourcesRead MoreMy Career As A Nurse1494 Words   |  6 PagesMy Nursing Career Not everyone has the calling to be a nurse but I am one of the lucky ones to be called to this wonderful profession. Being a nurse has its ups and downs like any other profession, but being able to make a difference in someone’s life is an absolute blessing. It took me a long time to reach my ultimate goal of becoming a registered nurse but I made it with a lot of help from my family. Life stories Ever since I was in high school I had wanted to be a nurse. I took two yearsRead MoreMy Career As A Nurse Practitioner1356 Words   |  6 Pagesinterested in starting my career as a registered nurse either in the emergency department (ED) or in the intensive care unit (ICU). I know the thought of starting out in ED or ICU can be intimidating for newly graduated nurses, but I want to establish a strong foundation in nursing and work with complex cases even at the start of my career. I believe this will be tough in the beginning but will eventually open up so many other opportunities for me down the road. I am aspiring to be a Nurse Practitioner asRead MoreMy Career As A Nurse Practitioner Essay980 Words   |  4 Pages Ive always wanted a rewarding career that revolved around helping people. I want to pursue a career as a nurse practitioner. I am not sure on what specialty I want. So given a assignment in my Introduction Health Sciences class where I have to shadow a nurse pract itioner, it gives me the opportunity to explore a specialty and see what it really is like in their typical work day. An advanced practice registered nurse, by the name of Mary Carlson at Parkland Medical Center was willing to let me shadowRead MoreMy Career Path For A Nurse1388 Words   |  6 Pagesalways want to be a nurse. Nursing is a fairly new career path for me, and while I love it now, I have had several things that I could turn into career fields. If I was asked what I wanted to be when I grew up when I was five, I would have told you that I wanted to move to Japan and make video games. I loved them more than anything. I still do. At twelve, I would have said I wanted to be a writer. By sixteen I developed my passion for hair, makeup, and all things beauty related. My love of beauty coincidedRead MoreMy Career As A Registered Nurse878 Words   |  4 Pages My short-term goals include passing my state boards upon graduation and then finding a fulfilling job as a Registere d Nurse (RN) at a major local hospital. Currently, I work at Summa Akron City Hospital and it would be seamless for me if I could obtain a job there as a nurse in one of their intensive care units. After a few years of practice, I plan to get my certification in Critical Care Nursing. Beyond that, my long-term goals for the future are to attend graduate school at University of AkronRead MoreMy Career As A Pediatric Oncology Nurse Essay1424 Words   |  6 PagesFollowing My Dreams Since I have been a young girl, I have dreamed of dedicating my life to aid others in health and wellness. Nursing, however has not always been my leading career choice. Career options such as a pediatrician, oncologist, anesthesiologist, etc. have been considered in my pursuit of finding the proper career path, but through all the consideration I have never lost my true passion of helping others. Through careful examination of these various careers, I discovered that I wantedRead MoreMy Career Path For A Pediatric Nurse768 Words   |  4 Pages Project Life For my career path, I chose to be a Pediatric Nurse. I chose to be a Pediatric Nurse , because on this job , you have to have a positive attitude , you get to stay active, and I enjoy working with kids and infants. Nurses also get an everyday challenge and continue learning throughout their career, which makes it even more attempting and interesting. Job duties of a Pediatric Nurse would include supporting young patients by explainingRead MoreMy Career As A Licensed Practical Nurse Essay1377 Words   |  6 Pagesnursing since 1993. I started my career as a Licensed Practical Nurse (LPN), graduating with a diploma from Long Beach City College in California December of 1992. Compassion and caring were embedded into my philosophy during my LPN educational track. While the Registered Nurse population was being drilled to learn the books and problem solve, the LPN was being taught to learn the books, but to have an excellent, caring and compassionate bedside manner. In 2007 I received my Associate’s Degree from Cincinnati

License to Procreate Free Essays

Caroline McCall Philosophy 211 Stephen Everett, Section 001 October, 12, 2012 License to Procreate The question â€Å"should people procreate† is a very opinionated one. There is no right or wrong answer just a personal opinion based on facts to support it, I happen to side with Hugh Lafollette in his essay â€Å"Licensing Parents†. I will argue that before people are allowed to procreate they should have to obtain a license which gives them the right to produce and raise children. We will write a custom essay sample on License to Procreate or any similar topic only for you Order Now Otherwise they should not be allowed any children until they have the license. First I will look at it from the child’s point of view and explain how it is rational for them. Second I will look at the reasoning and policies of this theory. Finally I will discuss how it would change the modern today and how it would be implemented. The licensing idea came about to protect children from harm. When children are little they cannot defend themselves and have no one but their parents to depend on. â€Å"Each year more than half a million children are physically abused or neglected by their parents. Many millions more are psychologically abused or neglected, not given love, respect, or a sense of self-worth† (Lafollette 438). Children need constant care and support, some people are just not suitable to give the attention and love that a baby requires. An analogy of this would be a small puppy. My roommates and I really wanted a puppy for our house this year and one of the girls volunteered for it to be mainly hers so she would take it home with her during breaks and continuously watch it. When we went to the pet store they would not let us have a dog because we were college kids and they said we didn’t have the time that the puppy needed devoted to it. A couple weeks later we called and asked if there was any way we could get one still and they said we need to know your schedules, where it will at all times, who will be the main caregiver, and we need parental support. So in the end we ended up getting a five week old German Shepherd Lab mix, but only with the consent of someone who had accountable credibility. When I think of this I think of how we had every right to get a dog if we wanted to but we needed to understand what getting a puppy entailed, just like how parents have rights to a child but they need to understand that they have to have accountable credibility to raise a child. â€Å"Both slander and human sacrifices are prohibited by law; both could result from the unrestricted exercise of freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Thus, even if people have these rights, they may sometimes be limited in order to protect innocent people. † (Lafollette 440). Parents do have a right to bear children, but children have a right to a good and beneficial life. Are the parent’s rights more valuable or important than the child’s? Is it right to say that the parent is being selfish or self-centered if they bring a child into the world that they cannot securely support? I think so because it is the parent’s duty to provide their child with the best life possible and to make sure they succeed the best they can. Just like with adopting the puppy there are tons of qualifications that you have to meet when adopting a child. My family adopted my sister when we were both six years old. I was very small but I can still remember some of the process that we had to go through. We had to go sign a ton of papers and then we had numerous interviews with both of the families. They wanted to make sure that we could afford another child so they looked at my parent’s incomes, their house, where we lived, how many kids they already had, how much time they could spend with the kids, etc. There were so many questions that we were asked just to make sure that she was going to be safe in our house. My mother was a stay at home mom so she had plenty of time to spend with us and we were able to afford for Rachel, my sister, to be a part of our family. I know that if you are trying to adopt an infant the regulations are even tighter. Your house has to baby proofed and you have to have everything already ready for the baby when it comes home. If people have to go through those processes to get a puppy or even a child then why are we not requiring the biological families to do the same thing? Despite the trauma children often face before they are finally adopted, they are five times less likely to be abused than children reared by their biological parents. † (Lafollette 446). When you adopt you have planned and dreamed of having this child instead of a mistake that you are now stuck with. When you plan on having a child and are expecting it or wanting it there would be less resentment or frustration towards that child. Having this process or program would definitely change the way the world is today. It would reduce or diminish the babies produced for welfare checks. Seeing as how my sister was one of those babies its terrible for parents to be dependent on the welfare checks which is for the children but it doesn’t end up actually helping the children to an equal or successful life. This just goes to show an example of the parent that would not be given a license because they do not care about the child’s well-being they just want the money that keeps coming in as long as they keep having babies. If this program were to be implemented in order to get your license you would need to take classes and tests. The classes would consist of nutritional information, hygiene information, health hazards, descriptions of behaviors and actions at certain ages, and basic needs for the child. I would also like to include a fake baby session where the couple or parent has to then take home a fake baby, one that can cry and be recorded so that the teacher can later look at the records and determine whether or not they are ready for their license. Some high school students do this experiment but I think it would be highly effective for adults to try as well. After the classes I would like for some tests to be run on the potential parent or couple. A background check for previous violent or abusive records would obviously need to be looked into. Adults with an abusive or violent past from their parents or guardians are more likely to abuse their children than people who had a happy childhood. These adults are also less likely to be overall happy. After considering my third statement some might say that it intrudes on our constitutional rights. However, I do not agree with that because it’s just like having a driver’s license. You have the right to drive a car if you would like to but because It can put someone else that is innocent in danger they make regulations that allow you to drive or not. These regulations are put in place to keep everyone safe and happy. So you may drive a car without a license but if you get pulled over there are going to be consequences because you may have put others’ lives in danger. Just like with having a child you have the right to have a child but because you are not licensed to have one you may be putting the innocent child’s life at risk and there will be punishments for it. The punishment for having an unlicensed child would e something like adoption. If for some reason you happen to get pregnant you can apply for the license as many times as you would like but if the infant is born without a license then it would be taken into the adoption agencies custody. It doesn’t violate your rights as an adult because that child has a right to fair and equal l ife just as you did when you were a child. An adult’s life’s choices or rights do not overcome a baby’s right. If you cannot provide the basics for a child then you should not be able to take it into a situation where it will never have an equal chance to succeed or be happy. Overall I have argued that people should not be allowed to procreate unless licensed through a process of interviews, tests, and classes where they will be evaluated to whether or not they would be acceptable parents. The children have a right to a successful and happy life because they are innocent people that have to have someone responsible to rely on to help make that happen. If the parents take the classes which teach them about how to be a great parent and help the child there should be no reason for them to fail unless they did not try or had a violent or abusive past and/or present. I couldn’t imagine not having my sister and I know that she would not be the person she is today had she not been adopted by my family. She has had a very successful past and has a very bright future. Situations like this definitely make modern day society better for children. This program would eventually shape this nation to where there would be less abuse and violence towards children and support happier adults in the long run. Sources Shafer-Landau, Russ. The Ethical Life: Fundamental Readings in Ethics and Moral Problems. New York: Oxford UP, 2012. Print. How to cite License to Procreate, Essay examples

Job Stress and Coping Strategies Among Secondary School Teachers of Buea Sub-Division in Cameroon free essay sample

TITLE: JOB STRESS AND COPING STRATEGIES AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS OF BUEA SUB-DIVISION IN CAMEROON ILONGO FRITZ NGALE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LESOTHO [emailprotected] com ABSTRACT The relationship between job-related stress variables and individual coping strategies was explored in a purposive probability sample of 200 secondary school teachers using a questionnaire. The use of the chi-square test revealed the following significant relationships: (1) Teachers stressed by student indiscipline do not necessarily develop aggressive behaviors; (2) Poor salary situations do not make teachers engage in income generating activities; (3) It is very likely that teachers lose enthusiasm for their work when they have a sense of under promotion; (4) Work overload does not make teachers dialogue less with their students; (5) Conflicting relationship with principals will not make teachers change their careers. Socioeconomic factors are the most important predictors of stress, followed by interpersonal relations and then by instructional problems. Individual personality differences and social support systems moderate the impact of stressors on teachers, influence their appraisal of socio-environmental demands as stressful, and determine the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of the coping strategies generated to manage job stress. According to the model I proposed for this study, each of the hypothetical situations of this research are variously appraised by each individual teacher on the basis of the relative strength of an underlying duty consciousness, ego anxiety and self denial triple complex. Finally, the study recommended the importance of reducing job stress by teaching teachers effective classroom management techniques and maximizing their intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. INTRODUCTION It was not until the mid 1970s that publications referring directly to â€Å"stress in teaching† began to appear in reasonable numbers (Coates Thorensen, 1976; Dunham, 1976; Kyriacou Sutcliffe, 1977). During the 1980s the number of studies reporting on teacher stress grew rapidly (kyriacou, 1987; Cole Walker, 1989). By the end of the 1990s the research literature on teacher stress had become voluminous (Travers Cooper, 1996; Vandenberghe Huberman, 1999; Kyriacou, 2000). There are generally four models of teacher stress: 1. The experience by a teacher of unpleasant, negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration, or depression, resulting from some aspect of their work, which is perceived as a threat to their self-esteem or wellbeing (Kyriacou Sutcliffe, 1978a). 2. The level of pressure and demands placed made on an individual, with â€Å"strain† being reaction to such stress. 3. The degree of mismatch between the demands made upon an individual and the latter’s ability to cope with those demands. . Teacher burnout, which is the state of emotional, physical and attitudinal exhaustion which may develop in teachers who have been unsuccessful in coping with stress over a long period (Vandenberghe Huberman, 1999). Human beings have many biological, social and psychological needs, which when not met could generate stress. Hans Selye (1978) defines stress as â€Å"any external drive which threatens to upset the organismic equilibrium. The studies by Rasehke (1985); Blase (1986 ), Hock and Roger (1996), indicated that the degree of stress which teachers experience is positively related to the degree which he/she perceives a lack of control over a potentially threatening situation. Schools are considered formal organizations (Hoy Miskel, 1987), and teachers are susceptible to organizational stress of role conflict and role ambiguity. Many researchers have identified sources of stress among secondary school teachers. Their findings have indicated that time pressures (Astin,1993; Barnes, Agago Coombs, 1998; Thompson Dey, 1998) and high expectations (Gmelch et al. 1986; Smith et al. , 1995) are the main sources of stress for teachers. In many countries, the teacher’s job is often considered as one of the most stressful professions. In the last two decades, intensive research has been carried out in the USA and Europe concerning the sources and symptoms of teachers’ professional stress. Studies in the field of teachers’ stress show that the greater part of stress is associated with the rapid pace of changes in education, particularly in the 1980s and 1990s. Furthermore expectations of parents towards their children’s education may also be real source of stress. Survey data indicates that teaching is one of the â€Å"high stress† professions (Travers Cooper, 1996; Kyriacou, 2000). Studies reporting sources of teacher stress (Travers Cooper, 1996; Benmansour, 1998) indicate that the main sources of stress facing teachers are: a) Teaching pupils who lack motivation; b) Maintaining discipline; c) Time pressures and workload; d) Coping with change; e) Being evaluated by others; f) Dealing with colleagues; g) Self-esteem and status; h) Administration and management; i) Role conflict and ambiguity; j) Poor working conditions. Individual coping with stress falls into two main categories: †¢ Direct action techniques are things that a teacher can do that eliminate the source of stress, through managing or organizing oneself more effectively, development of new knowledge, skills and working practices, and negotiating with colleagues. †¢ Palliative techniques which do not deal with the source of stress itself, but aim at lessening the feeling of stress that occurs through either changing how the situation is appraised, or through physical activities aimed at relaxation for relieving tension and built up anxiety. Studies of how teachers cope with stress (Cockburn, 1996; Benmansour, 1998) indicate the following coping strategies: o Trying to keep problems in perspective; o Avoiding confrontations; o Trying to relax after work; o Taking action to deal with problems; o Keeping feelings under control; o Devote more time to particular tasks; o Discuss problems and express feelings to others; o Have a healthy home life; o Plan ahead and prioritize; o Recognize one’s own limitations. There was a knowledge gap prior to this research being carried out. Firstly, to the best of my knowledge no research has ever been carried out in Cameroon with the goal of evaluating sources of job stress and coping strategies among secondary school teachers in particular, and in other sectors of the society as a whole. Secondly, in my humble opinion the turning point in Cameroon’s history accountable for the as yet mostly un-researched sources and consequences of job stress among workers in general and secondary school teachers in particular was the socio-economic crises of the early 1990s, characterized by currency devaluation. Following the latter situation, the work situation and attitudes of civil servants underwent radical changes. Teachers in all sectors experienced sharp fall in salaries and purchasing power. Some of them reacted to this situation with negative work practices like late coming, absenteeism, and laisser-faire attitudes. Others though, decided to face the challenge by furthering their education or engaging in parallel income generating activities. Thus teaching in Cameroon today for secondary school teachers entails experiencing high pressure due fundamentally to the consequences of the socio-economic crunch. Galloping and at times haphazard urbanization is also intimately associated with stress inducing problems of poverty, urban slums, criminality and environmental degradation. The apparently peripheral status of the stress phenomenon among Cameroonians is most likely turning the former into the number one silent killer syndrome, especially as the control of infectious diseases and the drop of infant mortality have increased the average life expectancy in Cameroon, implying a probable rising prevalence of stress nduced old age diseases such as hypertension and cardiovascular ailments. Thus, though contemporary research highlights the prevalence of the stress as a global and insidious phenomenon, its causal factors are like to differ from one society to another and from one sector of human activity to another. It is thus on the basis of the existing research vacuum in the area of job stress and coping strategies among civil servants in general, and secondary school teachers in particular that this study coins its rationale. HYPOTHESES The following are the hypotheses of the study: 1. Teachers stressed by student indiscipline develop aggressive behaviors; 2. Teachers stressed by poor salary situations engage in income generating activities; 3. Teachers stressed by under promotion lose enthusiasm for their work; 4. Teachers stressed by work overload dialogue less with their students; 5. Teachers stressed by conflicts with their principals seek to change their career. METHODOLOGY The research design adopted for this study is the descriptive/evaluative survey research method. This research design is descriptive in the sense that it seeks to present the sources of job stress experienced by secondary school teachers, whilst it is evaluative in attempting to determine the various strategies teachers put in place to cope with job stress. The population for this study includes the teachers of all government bilingual and government bilingual high schools in the Fako Division in the South West Province of Cameroon. The sample for this study was made up of all the teachers of GBHS Molyko and GHS Bokwaongo, Buea. The purposive sampling technique was used for this study because the latter institutions are the largest in the Buea Sub-Division, and their combined teaching population was deemed substantial for the purposes of the research. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire made up of 17 items for administration on teacher respondents. Most of the questions were close-ended to facilitate answering and scoring, some being open-ended for provision of supplementary information. The items in the questionnaire included personal data, student indiscipline, salary levels, sense of under-promotion, teacher workload, teacher-principal interactions, and the role of social support systems in determining the coping strategies of secondary school teachers in relation to job stress. Data analysis was through percentages and the chi-square, to verify the hypotheses at a 0. 05 level of significance. ANALYSES Data analysis revealed the following findings: Teachers who were stressed by student indiscipline do not necessarily develop aggressive behaviors; †¢ It is not automatic that teachers stressed by poor salary situations would become engaged in income generating activities; †¢ It is very likely that teachers lose enthusiasm for their work when they have a sense of under promotion; †¢ Teachers stressed by work overload do not necessarily dialogue less with their students; †¢ Teachers stressed by conflicts with principals do not nece ssarily seek to change their career. We will now look at the issues arising from the above findings following data analyses. Hypothesis 1: The striking fact is that more than two-thirds of the teachers are stressed by student indiscipline, but they do not develop aggressive behaviors. To explain this state of things, it is important to consider two confounding factors, that is, social support and personality differences. Psychologists use the term social support to refer to the resources that individuals receive from other people or groups, often in the form of comfort, caring or elp. There is a great deal of evidence to suggest that social support can improve one’s psychological and physical health (Cohen Wills, 1985). If we consider the supportive roles of family, principal, Parents’ Teachers’ Association (PTA), friends, tribal meetings, political and religious activities in teachers’ coping with job stress, we realize the following trends. Firstly, 89% of teachers questioned feel family i s supportive, 34. 5% that PTA is supportive, 84% that friends are supportive, 29% that political activities are supportive, 69. % that religious activities are supportive, 62. 5% that tribal meetings are supportive, and 81% feel that relatives are supportive. Thus, on the whole, teachers questioned have a strong social support base which acts as palliative coping strategy. The activities, individuals and social groups which constitute the latter do not deal with the source of stress itself, in this case student indiscipline, but aim at lessening the feeling of stress that occurs through dialogue, or through physical activities aimed at relaxation for relieving tension and built up anxiety. This justifies the fact that though 81% of the teachers questioned are stressed by student indiscipline they do not develop aggressive behaviors. Secondly, from the self-appraisal responses to questions on personality type, we realize the following tendencies: 89% of teachers feel committed to their duty, 79% have confidence in the future, 29. 5% fear those in authority, 22% feel abandoned, 24% feel restless, 72% work towards greener pastures, 55% are satisfied with their jobs, 72. 5% set very high goals for themselves, 83% set reasonable goals for themselves, 58% engage in competitive activities, and 36. % engage in non-competitive activities. From the aforementioned, we can deduce that the strong social support base of the respondents gives them the profiles of type B personality, that is, generally easy going, self confident, relaxed and secure. Numerous studies indicate that people having many social ties (spouse, friends, relatives, group memberships), live longer and are less a pt to succumb to stress related illness than are people who have few supportive social contacts (Cohen Wills, 1985). Friends and family can bolster self-esteem, provide information, companionship, and financial and material aid. The findings concerning the first hypothesis indicate that despite a relatively high number of teachers stressed by student indiscipline, (81%), the positive buffer role of social support systems most likely accounts for the generally non-aggressive coping strategies that these teachers use to manage student indiscipline. Strong social support and its incidence on personality, lead to task-focused coping strategies in relation to student indiscipline, in the forms of counseling, asking the students to stand or kneel. It should be noted that 62. 5% of the teachers questioned use the counseling approach to cope with student indiscipline. Task-oriented coping strategies often involve four steps, that is, identifying the source of stress, choosing an appropriate course of action for stress reduction, implementing the plan, evaluating its success, and positively changing behavior at the end of the process. We thus realize at this juncture an apparent link between strong social support, types B personality, and task-focused non-aggressive coping strategies among secondary school teachers in relation to stress inducing student indiscipline. Hypothesis II Teachers stressed by poor salary situation do not necessarily become engaged in income generating activities. 2% of the teachers who are stressed by poor salary situation do nothing about it, in order to supplement their monthly income. In other words 22% of questioned teachers do not become involved in income in business, part time classes and farming, activities which are considered as income generating. To throw light on some possible reasons for this situation, I deci ded to briefly consider some personality theories, social support confounding factors, and see how they can influence teachers’ coping strategies in relation to stressful conditions like poor salary situations. For psychoanalytic theory, personality arises from a conflict between aggressive pleasure-seeking biological impulses and the social restraints against them. Teachers with very strong superegos, based on elaborate social support systems as exemplified by earlier statistics, may be apparently composed and secure, that is , professing to be without a feeling of abandonment, 22%, without one of restlessness, 24%, but can be actually guilt ridden and repressed, withholding their real feelings and houghts in relation to their salary situation. Secondly, the humanistic perspective considers the relation between culture and the individual. For Triandis (1994), individualistic persons and cultures give priority to personal goals and define their identity mostly in terms of their personal attributes. They strive for personal control and individual achievement, while collectivists give priority to the goals of their groups, often their family, clan, or work groups, and define their identity ac cordingly. By their group identifications, collectivists gain a sense of belonging, a set of values, a network of caring individuals, an assurance of security. Thus, though teachers are stressed by poor salary situation, 22% of them do nothing because there is very likely an underlying sense and need for the denial of self-realization. Most of the teachers who do nothing in relation to their salary situation justified their attitude because of lack of money to engage in business, no time and venues to engage in parallel income generating activities. Their basic coping strategies included passivity, a sense of learned helplessness, no task-focused direct action, hoping and waiting for a better future. In this wise social support systems and their effect on coping strategies prove more determining in relation to stress management than the apparent gravity of the initial stressor which is poor salary situation. I think there is a contradiction between the results of the second hypothesis and coping strategies that have been observed among teaching in relation to management of management of poor salary conditions. Firstly, teachers in the Buea Sub-Division have observed producing and selling photocopied notes to students. Furthermore, some mostly female teachers also engage in the selling of dress items, for example cosmetics, jewelry and inner wears to their colleagues. These unmentioned parallel and informal income generating activities highlight the fact that more and more teachers despite the result of hypothesis two could be actively engaged in income generating activities to supplement their monthly salaries. Hypothesis III It is very likely that teachers lose enthusiasm for their work when they are stressed by a sense of under promotion. 50. 5% of the teachers questioned are never stressed by under promotion, while 49. 5% are sometimes or frequently stressed by a sense of under promotion. The coping strategies of teachers questioned in relation to under promotion include: lose enthusiasm for work, 24. 5%, feel abandoned, 20. 5%, seek promotion, 22%, do nothing, 22%, and not applicable, 10%. The coping strategies are split along the lines of assertiveness for the 22% of teachers who seek for promotion, and learned helplessness for the 67. 5% that lose enthusiasm for work, feel abandoned, and do nothing when stressed by under promotion. For the researcher, a possible reason for this attitude of learned helplessness in relation to under promotion of teachers is related to the latter’s interactions with authority figures. Despite the fact that 62% of the teachers questioned claim they do not fear those in authority, the responses of those who do nothing when stressed by under promotion contradicts the preceding assertion. To this effect, all those who do nothing, though stressed by under promotion, explain their attitude by the facts that there are no objective criteria for promotion, that they have no â€Å"godfathers† to push them through, and that thirdly, they will wait patiently for God’s own time to be promoted. If for psychoanalysis individuation through the Oedipus complex implies confrontation of the father figure, temporary rivalry with it prior to identification to its values and development of the ego ideal, then the previously mentioned responses of might indicate possibilities of fear of father figures considered discriminating and socially castrating. Thus, the resulting learned helplessness generates a sense of fixation, whereby the individual accepts the pressure from this particular stressor without the slightest attempt to bring about change. Fixation to a sense of under promotion in this case generates procrastination, that is, projection of imagined solutions as an escape from reality based on anxious fear. Thus the individual ego strives for self affirmation, but when there is fear of assertion of ego uniqueness through the overwhelming pressures of a strong sense of duty consciousness, losing enthusiasm for work, and feeling abandoned are then passive defense mechanisms of a regressive ego ideal whose impulse for promotion and self actualization is stifled. Though 67. 5% of teachers lose enthusiasm for work, feel abandoned, and do nothing when stressed by under promotion, 22% of these same teachers seek promotion. This indicates that more than one-fifth of the teachers do not lose enthusiasm for their work when they are stressed by a sense of under promotion. On the contrary, they adopt a proactive attitude of actively seeking for promotion. It is very likely that this percentage of teachers, that is, 22%, actively militates in religious, tribal and political social support groups which constitute in Cameroon lobbying groups for socio-economic evolution of teachers in particular and civil servants in particular. Furthermore, the latter group of teachers is most likely made of those who are not satisfied with their present job, and subsequently work towards greener pastures, setting very high goals fore themselves, and engaging in income generating activities. Hypothesis IV Teachers stressed by work overload do not necessarily dialogue less with their students. 70% of the teachers questioned are stressed by work overload, while their coping strategies include, dialogue less with their students, 11%, give extra classes, 30%, give photocopied notes, 1. 5%, accommodate the situation, 49%. Thus about half of the teachers stressed by work overload accommodate the situation through an emotion-focused defense mechanism. Accommodation also implies that 50% of teachers stressed by work overload do not adopt task-oriented coping strategies like giving extra-classes and giving photocopied notes, but revert to negative escape defense mechanisms. The aforementioned situation can be justified by two possible reasons. Firstly, the nature of social support could be either emotional, that is, comforting, caring, advising, or instrumental, that is, effectively providing needed materials or financial assistance to reduce stress generated by work overload. Thus if 84% of the teachers affirm that their friends are very supportive in reducing stress, then this could be that the type and nature of their support might be more emotional for a situation that needs instrumental help, that is, seeking for means of effectively and practically relieving the workload pressure for stressed teachers. In this same light, Cohen and McKay (1984) propose that the type of support (e. g. emotional, instrumental) which will be most effective in a particular situation depends on the stressors acting in that situation. In other words, different stressors create needs for different types of support, and that the type must match the recipient’s needs in order to be effective (Jackson, 1992). For example, an individual who is experiencing work overload is going to benefit from co-workers taking on some of his or her duties because it will decrease one’s workload. On the other hand, a co-worker’s willingness to listen may be nice, but this will not decrease the work role overload the individual is experiencing. For example, social support from co-workers and supervisors should have a more significant effect in buffering work stress than social support from home (LaRocco, House French, 1980). The accommodating attitude of teachers in relation to work overload, 49%, can be explained by the fact that their strong superego element generated by a solid social support network leads on the part of the individual teacher to an exaggerated sense of duty consciousness, beyond and above the weight of the workload experienced. Furthermore, duty consciousness is reinforced by a guilt complex which represses any effort at conscious reappraisal and positive management of the situation of work overload through task-oriented coping strategies. Thus, a wrong type of social support from friends, and learned helplessness due to exaggerated sense of duty consciousness can explain why 49% of the questioned teachers simply accommodate work overload. On the other hand, the finding that teachers stressed by work overload do not necessarily dialogue less with their students can be reappraised. If we consider that 11% of teachers dialogue less with their students, that 1. 5% of them give photocopied notes to students, and that 49% of teachers accommodate work overload, certain deductions can be made. Firstly, photocopied notes imply that teachers have insufficient time to manage and complete course syllabuses and programs. On the basis of time constraints, it is evident that selling photocopied notes is a compensatory coping mechanism against work overload generated stress. This implies that the teachers involved in this practice will not have enough time to dialogue with their students. If this is the case, then the 49% of teachers who accommodate stress generated by work overload are very likely passive and resigned to this situation, implying less enthusiasm to engage in constructive dialogue with students. On the basis of the aforementioned analysis, instead of 11% of teachers who dialogue less with students when stressed by work overload, we might have a new hypothetical scenario through which in addition to the just mentioned percentage could be added the 49% who accommodate work overload, and the 1. 5% that give out photocopied notes, in a new total of 61. % of teachers who dialogue less with their students when stressed by work overload. This conclusion would go contrary to the finding that teachers stressed by work overload do not necessarily dialogue less with their students. Hypothesis V Teachers stressed by conflicts with principals do not systematically seek to change their career. 58% of teachers questioned say they are never stressed by their relation with the principal, while 42% declare they are stressed. In relation to the coping strategies they adopt, 52. 5% state that they seek reconciliation through dialogue, 2% seek transfer, 35. % avoid contact, and only 0. 5% change career. Furthermore, 73% of the questioned teachers say their principals are either supportive or very supportive. This latter figure corresponding to close to two-thirds of the teachers questioned indicates ambivalence in the teachers’ perception of the principal as representative of social authority, especially as 35. 5% of the teachers cope with stress related to their principals through avoiding contact. According to Torrance (1965), there are four typical situations in which avoidance may be the most effective way of coping with stress. First, when the chances of failure are overwhelmingly great and resistance will be futile. Second, when a near overload of stress exists and additional stress might cause a complete breakdown. Third, avoidance is useful when the losses involved in trying to cope outweigh the benefits to be gained. Finally, temporary withdrawal may be strategically wise in situations that become less dangerous later on, or when the chances of success would be increased by mastering certain skills in the meantime. Avoidance is thus a compromise escape defense mechanism which I think is the result of two forces that interact through the anxious ego complex. These are on the one hand respect for hierarchy and authority, expressed through the appraisal that the principal is a positive social support medium, 73%, while on the other hand 35. 5% of the teachers avoid contact with the principal when the latter becomes a source of stress. At the same time 52. 5% of the teachers seek reconciliation through dialogue, which is a task-focused coping strategy in case of conflict with the principal. Thus, teachers questioned exhibit bipolarity in coping with stress resulting from their interactions with their principals, that is, coexistence of effective and ineffective coping strategies. Furthermore, if 52. 5% of the 42% of teachers stressed by their relationship with the principal seek reconciliation through dialogue, and slightly over one –fifth of the teachers say the principal is not supportive, then the impulse towards reconciliation could be based more on fear and not at a sincere effort at compromise. This fact can be reinforced by the fact that close to 30% of the teachers fear those in authority. Thus the effort towards reconciliation could veil underlying fear, helplessness and anxiety, complexes which become the main focus of the task-focused coping strategy of seeking reconciliation with the principal. In other words, reconciliation could be less a coping strategy against conflicting relationships with the principal, and be more a strategy to contain and manage teacher felt fear, anxiety and helplessness vis-a-vis persons representing social authority. This study highlights the possibility of individual differences affecting both teachers’ reactions to stressors and the strategies they generate to cope with the latter. In effect all teachers are not affected by stress in the same way. This is a function of certain factors. Job satisfaction and control determine individual differences in relation to job stress. Workers who report being satisfied with their jobs do not suffer from harmful effects of stress. In my opinion, even though 55% of the teachers questioned are satisfied with their job, 89% feel committed to their duty, these apparent indices of job satisfaction should be analyzed in context. As said earlier, strong social support systems which reinforce a sense of duty consciousness when correlated with coexisting ones of non self-fulfillment like feelings of abandonment, losing enthusiasm for work, could be indicative of a more complex situation than that which seems apparent. In other words, when teachers say they experience job satisfaction and are committed to their duty, this could present only part of the picture, which could include underlying feelings of frustration in relation to repressed feelings of non self-fulfillment. Secondly, the higher the job demand, and the lower the control over these demands, the higher the measures of stress (Fox, Dwyer, and Ganster, 1993). A three year study of 72 postal workers in the Netherlands confirmed that lack of control over their jobs was a significant source of stress (Carayon, 1995). In the present study, the incidence of lack of control of teachers can be exemplified in the case of the latter who do nothing when stressed by under promotion, and explain their attitude by saying they do not master criteria for promotion, that they lack the necessary social network to foster their individual cases. Thus the teachers in this study claim they have no control over promotion, a fact which increases their stress levels. Thirdly, personality factors have been related to ability to tolerate stress. This relationship is particularly apparent with type A and type B personalities. Friedman, Meyer and Roseman Ray (1974) classify people as intense, type A or as laid back, type B. Type A people are very competitive, always on the go, hard driving, demanding perfection, ambitious and workaholic. Type B people are non-competitive, relaxed, in control, easygoing, understanding, confident and leisure loving. For this researcher, some of the questioned teachers portray but â€Å"pseudo type B† personality traits, in the sense that the impressions they give of apparent job satisfaction, not engaging in competitive activities, not feeling restless, can be more of a veiling of self actualizing tendencies that are repressed by an external locus of control. The latter is characterized by waiting and hoping in anxiety and learned helplessness for external sources of relief from stressors. By analyzing theories on social support and personality in relation to the answers of teachers questioned for this study, the researcher was led to propose the following theoretical stress perception and stress management model, limited in scope to the area of study, that is, the Buea Sub-Division of Cameroon. The psychoanalytic, trait and humanistic perspectives on personality form the basis of a model I wish to propose, though with certain modifications of the latter. The conceptual basis of this theoretical model is a strong superego, a duty onscious complex stemming from a social support system that determines a group-focused orientation in self definition, life tasks, coping methods, morality, relationships and attributing behavior. In relation to the aforementioned concepts, allegiance is primarily to the group entity which highlights interdependence, the need to maintain connections, accommodate to reality, duty-based morality, harmony based relationships and behavior that ref lects social norms and roles. This collectivist model of values is borrowed from Hofstede, 1980, and Triandis, 1994. Thus from social support based on esteem, belongingness and love needs, a strong superego complex is generated which prescribes the fundamental idea of duty to the group. In the other words, the only way the individual can feel secure, safe and really out of danger even in the pursuance of physiological needs, is by satisfying the fundamental needs of affiliation with others, be accepted as belonging to them, to culminate in a sense of achievement and competence through gained group approval and recognition. From the basic triangle of the model arises the middle belt of the ego complex which is the impulse for striving towards uniqueness. The ego complex is anxiety ridden because it is the crossroads of two diametrically opposed forces, that is, allegiance to group or duty consciousness, and individuation or the right to express and experience the sense of uniqueness. The theoretical model of stress perception and management among Buea Sub-Division secondary school teachers has three main poles, made up of duty consciousness, ego anxiety and self denial. Ego anxiety utilizes ineffective defense-focused coping strategies in relation to stress generated by duty consciousness, ego anxiety, and self denial pressures, in the forms of passivity, that is, resignation to the latter tension. Secondly, the resigned ego through learned helplessness reinforces self denial and generates compromise defense mechanisms like rationalization, projection and reaction formation. Furthermore, through passivity, the stressed ego develops the facade of a pseudo-type B personality, that is, one characterized superficially by a semblance of non-competitiveness, relaxation, easygoing and understanding attitudes, self confidence and apparent job satisfaction. The pseudo type B personality attributes are underlain by the pressures of self denial, or the repressed, unfulfilled urge to experience and express uniqueness. Each urge to assert the ego’s rights to uniqueness, that is, sense of independence, discovering and expressing one’s uniqueness, come under the double onslaught of group allegiance and ego anxiety. Following the preceding analyses, the present research and the results gotten from the questionnaire can be explained using the proposed theoretical model. Firstly, all axes of the model are interconnected. In this wise, the perception by each secondary school teacher of the degree of stress generated by student indiscipline, low salary, under promotion, work overload and conflict with the principal, is a function of the relative extensity and intensity to which duty consciousness, ego anxiety and self denial determine his or her personality. In like manner, the associated coping strategies generated to manage stressors, either task-focused or defense-focused techniques will also be a function of the relative pressure exerted on each person by a sense of duty, ego anxiety or becoming unique. A point of importance is that a particular defense mechanism arises from this model, which we can term passive-aggressiveness. In other words, since the need for uniqueness is stifled by an overriding duty consciousness, the escape mechanism of repression reinforces self denial and the fear to assert the ego’s rights to uniqueness. The compromise resulting from this situation is a semblance of passivity since assertiveness has temporarily failed. But then this impression of resignation through pseudo type B personality still has the repressed energy to assert the self. The fusion of passivity and repressed assertiveness generates passive-aggressiveness in behavior. Thus social support is the theoretical base of this model, and it is characterized by duty, group consciousness. The impulse towards individuation is anxiety ridden since it comes under the pressures of both duty consciousness and the need for self affirmation. It is the relative pressures and strengths of these opposing forces that determine the coping strategies that the ego puts in place to offset stressors. The pressure of the strong superego base toward conformism to group consciousness represses the impulse towards self actualization, which is veiled behind escape defense mechanisms that include repression, regression and fantasy. Thus ach of the given hypothetical situations of this study are variously appraised by each individual teacher on the basis of the relative strength of the duty consciousness, ego anxiety and self denial triple complex. This theoretical model is the thus the modest contribution of this researcher to educational psychology, with a scope that covers only the secondary school teachers of the Buea Sub-Division. CONCLUSION Results of the statistical analyses of this study highlight the fact that no two individuals are similar in terms of job stress perception and coping strategies for stress management. The research came out with two confounding factors, that is, personality differences and social support systems which also influence both the teachers’ perception of student indiscipline, salary conditions, under promotion, work overload, international problems with the principals, and whether or not he or she will cope with these stressors through aggressive behavior, engagement in income generating activities, become demotivated, dialogue less with students or seek to change career. The sources of personality differences include type A or type B personalities, job complexity, hardiness, locus of control, self esteem, negative affectivity, type of occupation, gender differences, social support network, personal belief system among other factors. A combination of the two confounding variables of type B personality profile of teachers in this study, and their strong social support background explains according to this researcher why most hypotheses proposed by the researcher were rejected. These include the facts that teachers stressed by student indiscipline did not develop aggressive behaviors, that teachers stressed by work overload did not dialogue less with their students, and that teachers stressed by relations with principals did not necessarily seek to change their career. In this study, teachers utilized both effective and ineffective coping strategies to cope with the five hypotheses of the research. The latter once more confirm that no two individuals can perceive, appreciate and manage stress in the same manner. This is a function of the fact that the direct and buffer role of confounding factors like social support and personality differences influence the heterogeneity of subsequent responses to job stress. The present study has, in the opinion of the researcher raised more conceptual issues than it has solved, and this researcher hope that the questions that arise from this work will provide avenues for more research on other aspects of job stress and stress management strategies. The following are areas in which I feel research could be carried out in the future: †¢ A comparative study to determine the influence of gender, length of service of teachers on their perception of, and reaction to job stressors, and subsequent coping strategies; †¢ The effects of job stress on family life and subsequent job attitudes; †¢ A comparative study between social support systems in both developed and developing countries, and their effect on the perception and management of job stress; †¢ Evaluation of drop out rate of teachers from their initial vocation due to job stress; †¢ Explore the impact of teacher-student interaction and classroom climate on teacher stress. The researcher encountered certain difficulties in carrying out this study. The researcher was not able to obtain the Standardized Teacher Stress Inventory (Borg et al. , 1991) and COPE, to measure psychological coping strategies of teachers (Carver, Scheier and Wein traub, 1989). These two instruments would have made this work much more scientific. Finally some respondents might not have been sincere in their answers, especially those who nonchalantly and grudgingly filled the instrument. REFERENCES 1) Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college? Four critical years revisited. San Francisco: Jossey – Bass. 2) Barnes, B. L. , Agago, M. O. , Coombs, W. T. (1998). Effects of job related stress on faculty intension to leave academic. Research in Higher Education. 3) Benmansour, N. (1998). Job satisfaction, stress and coping strategies among Moroccan high school teachers, Mediterranean Journal of Educational Studies, 3, 13-33. ) Blase (1986). Leadership behavior of school principals in relation to teacher stress, satisfaction and performance, Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 24, 159-171. 5) Borg, M. Riding, R. (1991). Occupational stress and satisfaction in teaching, British Educational Research Journal, 17, 263-283. 6) Carayon, P. (1995). Effect of job demands and social support on worker stress: A study of VDT users. In Behavior and Information Technology, 14 (1), 32-40. 7) Carver, C. , Scheier, M. , Weintraub, J. (1989). Assessing Coping Strategies: A theoretically based approach, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267-283. ) Coates, T. J. Thorensen, C. E. (1976). Teacher Anxiety: a review with recommendations, Review of Educational Research, 46, 159-184. 9) Cockburn, A. D. (1996). Primary teachers’ knowledge and acquisition of stress relieving strategies, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, pp. 399-410. 10) Cohen, S. Wills, T. (1985). Stress, social support and the buffering hypotheses, Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357. 11) Cohen, S McKay, G. (1984). Interpersonal relationships as buffers of the impact of psychological stress on health, Handbook of Psychology and Health, Hillsdale, NJ, Baum, Singer and Taylor. 12) Cole, M. Walker, S. Eds) (1989). Teaching and s tress, Buckingham, Open University Press. 13) Dunham, J. (1976). Stress situations and responses, in NAS/UWT (Eds) Stress in schools (Hemel Hempstead, NAS/UWT). 14) Fox, M. , Dwyer, D. , Ganster, D. (1993). Effects of stressful job demands and control on physiological and attitudinal outcomes in a hospital setting. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 289-318. 15) Gmelch, W. H. , Wilke, P. K. , Lorrich, N. P. (1986). Dimensions of stress among University faculty: Factor analytic results from national study. Research in Higher Education, 24, 266-286. 16) Hock Roger (1996). Professional burnout among public school teachers. Public Personnel Management, 101, 167-189. 17) Hofstede, G. (1980). The psychological foundations of culture, New York, Knopf. 18) Hoy, W. , Miskel, C. (1987). Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice, New York: Random House 19) Jackson, B. (1992). Research and education reform, National Academy Press. 20) Kyriacou, C. (2000). Stress-busting for Teachers, Cheltenham, Stanley Thornes. 21) Kyriacou, C. (1987). Teacher stress and burnout: an international review, Educational Research, 29, 146-152. 22) Kyriacou, C. Sutcliffe, J. (1978a). A model of Teacher Stress, Educational Studies, 4, 1-6. 23) Kyriacou, C. Sutcliffe, J. (1977). Teacher stress: a review, Educational Review, 29, 299-306. 24) LaRocco, J. M. , House, J. S. , French, J. R. P. , Jr. (1980). Social support, occupational stress, and health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 202–218. Friedman, M. , Rosenman, Ray. (1974). Type A behavior and your heart, New York, Knopf. 25) Rasehke, D. B. (1985). Teachers stress: The elementary teacher’s perspective, Elementary School Journal, 85, 559-564. 26) Selye, C. (1978). The stress of life, New York: McGraw-Hill. 27) Smith, E. , Anderson, J. L. , Lovrich, N. P. (1995). The multiple sources of workplace stress among land-grant university faculty. Research in Higher Education, 36, 261-282. 8) Thompson, C. J. , Dey, E. L. (1998). Pushed to the margins: Sources of stress for African American college and university faculty. Journal of Higher Education, 69, 324-345. 29) Torrance, E. P. (1965). Developing womens natural gifts. Womens Education, 4(1), 1, 7. 30) Travers, C. J. Cooper, C. L. ( 1996). Teachers under pressure: Stress in the teaching profession, London, Routledge. 31) Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill. 32) Vandenberghe, R. Huberman, A. M. (Eds) (1999). Understanding and Preventing Teacher Burnout: a source book of international research and practice, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Common Elements That Mess up Your Biochemistry Personal Statement Essay Example

Common Elements That Mess up Your Biochemistry Personal Statement Paper Biochemistry is a vast field that deals with the chemical processes that take place in a living organism, though it is not restricted to only living matter. Individuals who want to pursue biochemistry field are prepared to devote their life in studying different structures and functions of cellular components of living matters. To gain admission in a college in order to acquire advance degree in biochemistry one needs to deal with a college personal statement first. Writing a personal statement for biochemistry graduate course is although not a rocket science but still you need to be extra careful because even a single critical mistake can easily put your application at risk and jeopardize your chances of gaining admission in a prospective college. You need to make an effective outline and list down all the necessary elements carefully to make the statement impressive. It should also be noted that not every detail needs to be shared in the personal statement. Only those details should be discussed that can make the right impact. Following are some of the common elements that can mess up your biochemistry personal statement, rendering you from gaining acceptance in any prominent college. Failure to meet the personal statement requirements We will write a custom essay sample on Common Elements That Mess up Your Biochemistry Personal Statement specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Common Elements That Mess up Your Biochemistry Personal Statement specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Common Elements That Mess up Your Biochemistry Personal Statement specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Different graduate schools provide different requirements along with the application. It is necessary to read those requirements carefully in order to put together a statement which meets the expectations of the board. A standard list of requirements include word limit, font styles and size, number of paragraphs in the statement, deadline of submission, some specific questions, etc. Though writing a compelling biochemistry statement will stimulate the interest of the board members but by complying with given requirements the chances of gaining the admission increase even more. Furthermore, by adhering to the given set of guidelines, you demonstrate the board that you are able to meet their requirements and willing to adhere to their instructions. Expressing negativity There are those individuals who have faced and overcome many sorts of grave ordeals in order to strive and be able to study more. If you are also among those people who have overcome great trials, make certain that you don’t express any kind of negativity in your statement but demonstrate a positive and solid attitude. Show your worth to the admission board and don’t ask for a pity. Be proud of yourself that you have triumph over all your problems and show that expression in your statement. Plagiarism Given that majority of individuals don’t know how personal statements, especially biochemistry statements, are written, many of them try to copy the content from sample statements and submit it to the admission department. It is true that sample statements can serve as a great help for writing attention grabbing personal statement. However, plagiarizing the content from the samples, hoping to gain the acceptance is one guaranteed way to mess up the chances of gaining the admission. Remember that you can mess up your personal statement by sticking with the given mistakes or you can increase your chances by avoiding those mistakes, the choice is yours.

Corp Venture Capital At Eli Lilly Example

Corp Venture Capital At Eli Lilly Example Corp Venture Capital At Eli Lilly – Case Study Example Corporate Venture Capital Corporate venture capital is a practise where a large firm makes an investment in a small butinnovative and enterprising company by providing management and market to enable it gain a competitive advantage. At the Eli Lilly, investing in healthcare IT, Biotechnology and medical device start-up companies was the main objective of CVC. Corporate Venture Capital provided a broader scope for investments firms regardless of the stage the company exists in. The fund provided strategies for the business development as the acquisition of new technologies and commercialization of the products. It enabled the adoption of e.Lilly and Lilly BioVentures that produced robust results in the pharmaceutical world. The fund could give the research scientists more access to resources and leverage hence improving the firm’s products. In the case of Protagonist investment, Darren Carroll can utilise the existing strategies at the Eli Lilly’s to establish the firm. Normally the main challenges getting a profitable income from investing in a firm at an infant stage. These issues can be countered since the protagonist already has well established modern facilities and efficient source of labour. The firm uses the sophisticated software in its drug manufacturing that can merge the research results with the existing facts in the library, these reduces the operational cost and increases drug success. With the application of the modern technology in the company, management issue won’t be a problem since communication is improved. Also, Carrol can send some of his venture corporates to help in the oversight of the projects in the Australian based firm.In conclusion, the Eli Lilly Company should invest in the Protagonist Company. The company according to Carrol’s view shows a robust growth and its financial uprise is in its peak heights. The company also employs modern technology that can be a boost to the Eli Lilly.

Langston Hughes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Langston Hughes - Essay Example Through various literary devices for emphasis, themes dwelling on African-American heritage and in a simple language that many people can read, Hughes effectively presents the cultural diversity of an African-American not just to other races, but also most especially to his fellow African-Americans. Hughes’ style of poetry shows his strong background in rhythm and a hint of jazz, evident in his use of imagery, simile, metaphor, caesura, and repetition of words or lines for emphasis. His poem â€Å"Danse Africaine† exemplifies the use of these elements to effectively portray a moving performance of a female dancer illuminated only by a camp fire. The steep buildup of excitement and anticipation was illustrated through the use of various adjectives pertaining to the slow beat and low tones of the drums before the dance, as exemplified by the first five lines: Just like most presentations that have a beginning, a climax, and an ending Hughes repeated the theme he used for the first five lines such as the use of metaphor and the repetition of words, effectively establishing the poem’s rhythm and giving it its closure. Hughes’ other poem, â€Å"Lenox Avenue: Midnight† also uses similar literary devices, as well as adding rhymes and allusion to give the poem a hint of drama. Effective choice of words in â€Å"DanseAfricaine† makes it appear to be building anticipation or excitement ahead, and Hughes used this same strategy to establish the sad and lonely theme of â€Å"Lenox Avenue: Midnight†, as evident in lines 5-10 of the poem: The allusion in the poems that rain brings pain and implies feelings of loneliness or sorrow, and this line of thought establishes the poem’s sad and gloomy mood, similar to rhythm and blues. As with â€Å"DanseAfricaine†, Hughes also repeated the theme as well as the fourth line into the 14th line of the poem: â€Å"†¦ the gods are laughing at us†

Management Structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Management Structure - Essay Example Within any organization, the structure and management approaches needs to change in accordance with global changes and requirements and despite several changes, since the World War, companies have failed to meet the demands of the changing world economy. According to Bartlett and Ghoshal (1995) companies seem to have become fossilized and unable to adapt to slower growth so there is much instability in the market. Cost reduction programs tend to provide only short term relief, to the markets and companies so different business and organizational strategies are required to focus on long term gains and benefits to bring about growth and organizational stability. Successful companies like GE, ABB and Toyota seem to have rejected the principles of multi divisional enterprising according to Bartlett and Ghoshal and these companies employ an emerging management model which is not a new organizational structure but brings out a set of management processes and new roles and tasks for managers at different levels. Within any organization, the changes in the managerial structure are based on the core processes of entrepreneurial or encouraging initiatives, integrative and leveraging competence, renewal as in managing, rationalization and revi talization and a new management approach (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1995). ... l typology of multinational companies or MNCs tend to show a global, multidomestic and transnational aspects of interdependence and local responsiveness. The relationship between local and global corporate social responsibility with international organizational strategy shows that the strategic logic of Bartlett and Ghoshal could be applied to the realm of corporate social responsibility and multinational firms tend to respond to pressures for integration and responsiveness (Husted and Allen, 2006). Multinational firms tend to replicate the product market organizational strategy in the management of corporate social responsibility and these alternative approaches are also followed by MNEs. Institutional pressures, strategic analysis of social issues and stakeholders tend to guide decision making in CSR. Management of multinational enterprises is thus largely dependent on the strategies in management and corporate social responsibility, the analysis of social issues, the human resourc e management approach, and shows the implications of marketing management and public policy. Harzing (2000) used data from 166 subsidiaries of 37 MNCs in 9 countries and show how the MNCs tend to differ in aspects of interdependence and local responsiveness. International management assumes the existence of different types of MNCs that are polycentric, ethnocentric, geocentric, global as well as transnational. Multinational organizations are complex and manageable with a number of related characteristics and a typology for MNCs could help in explaining the functioning of such companies. The lack of conceptual integration and empirical corroboration in international business and management could be corrected with the reinforcing characteristics of MNCs. MNCs that bring about a balance

3 visual graphic aids Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

3 visual graphic aids - Assignment Example Most of the effects range from the production of allergens, toxicity, lowered nutrition, and resistance to anti-biotic. (Bernstein et al., 23). Research reveals that there are direct effects that consumption of GMO has on the increase of psychological diseases. Figure 1.0 presents a study finding that illustrate effects of GMO on autism. The figure above is a representation of the study that was conducted to examine the effect the GMO had on the children with autism. It was noted that there was a significant correlation coefficient of 0.985. This finding revealed that GMO food had direct negative effect on the mental condition of children. There are several more other studies that have tried to associate GMO with emerging diseases including cancer. It is based on these findings that there has been increased demand by those who oppose GMO to have such products labeled to give consumers a choice of what they want. There has been increase in demand for the GMO products to be labeled. This advocacy has grown for a long period of time. By 1990s some food products particularly in Europe were already labeling their products. Several countries including Japan had insisted on mandatory labeling of the GMO products. (Ghosh, Kakoli, and Paul C. Jepson, 67) However, it has grown ironical that some individuals are opposed to such moves, even with the fact that such move only provide the consumer with a clear choice. Focus has lately been directed to United States, which abandoned the law of mandatory labeling of the GMO products. Critics of the labeling view the policies as impediment to trade and unnecessary spending on research and advertisement. It is also noted that the producers of the GM products are not willing to lose their establishment since most consumers would not want to by the products label with the GM marks. They therefore are forced to change the ingredients of their products in

Impact of Feedback Environment on Employee Commitment

Impact of Feedback Environment on Employee Commitment This research paper examines the effect of feedback environment on employee commitment, with role clarity being the mediating variable in the public and private sectors organizations of Islamabad Rawalpindi city. From the previous researches a link was found between feedback environment and employee commitment at workplace, this study attempts to explore this link in the context of Islamabad. To create employee commitment amongst organizational members has become increasingly important in todayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s dynamic business environment, because this factor leads to employee retention and a low degree of turnover. For this study a sample size of 200 was taken and different private and public sector organizations were covered in the research work. The research was of hypothesis-testing in nature and responses were collected using standardized questionnaires for each variable. All three variables supervisory and coworker feedback and role clarity proved to be positively associate d with employee commitment; with the feedback from coworker source being the strongest in creating employee commitment followed by role clarity and feedback from supervisor source. The mediating effect of role clarity was not found to be significant and there is still an opportunity for further research in this area to explore this link. However the positive association of role clarity with employee commitment represents its importance in creating employee commitment, though its contribution is small, but this very dimension must not be ignored by the managers of the 21st century. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION It has become necessary for business firms to satisfy all of their major stakeholders (consumers, employees, clients etc) to remain competitive in todayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s dynamic business environment. The satisfaction and commitment level of a firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s employees is of key importance in determining its human resource strength, which in turn leads to their retention and make an organization able to satisfy the needs of its customers, consumers and clients in both the production and service sectors. Many variables have an impact on the level of commitment of a firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s employees, some of which are job satisfaction level (with intrinsic and extrinsic factors), the quality of leader-member exchange and the overall feedback environment that an employee works in. Many researchers put emphasis on providing feedback to employees in order to satisfy them and consider providing feedback to employees to be essential for maintaining and increasing employee motivation and satisfaction. Traditionally the yearly formal performance appraisal/review in private sector organizations and Annual Confidential Report (ACR) in public sector organizations have been considered as the ideal platform for higher authorities (departmental/organizational heads, supervisors, immediate bosses) to provide feedback to employees about how they view their performance. But employees generally report problems and shortfalls regarding the current methodologies used to asses their performance and characterize the overall process as being too much restricted to a performance appraisal period and involving only one feedback source (departmental/organizational heads, supervisors, and immediate bosses). A qualitative case study by Longenecker and Nykodym (1996) in the public sector illustrated some of the problems associated with traditional performance appraisal method. Employees noted that feedback in performance appraisal was problematic for improving employee motivation and performance, and as a communications tool to improve the manager/subordinate relationship and suggested that managers should: make more time available for providing performance feedback, increase their knowledge of actual performance, better clarify performance expectations, put greater emphasis on employee development, not dwell on negatives, provide more ongoing feedback, and increase two-way communication These suggestions indicate that supervisors/immediate bosses might adopt a number of specific behaviors to support feedback processes in the organization, which in turn might lead to an enhanced manager/subordinate relationship and increased employee satisfaction and hence employee commitment. Here we can see that feedback only after some specified interval and through formal sessions is not sufficient to improve work outcomes (job satisfaction, productivity, employee commitment, organizational citizenship behavior etc). Considering this very fact; Steelman, Levy and Snell (2004) proposed a scale, known as Feedback Environment Scale (FES) with a validation study to demonstrate how different facets of feedback sources (supervisor and coworkers) constitute the overall feedback environment within an organization. This new instrument measures a much more comprehensive view of the feedback environment and is more relevant to the organizations of today and the responsibilities of 21st-cent ury managers. FES may also be defined as a multifaceted construct with two major factors (Supervisor and Coworker) manifested in seven facets. Together, these seven facets reflect the contextual aspects surrounding the transmission of job performance feedback on a recurrent or daily basis (Steelman et al, 2004). In general; Employee commitment is oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s psychological attachment to his or her organizations. The higher the level of Employee Commitment of an individual, the lower are the chances of his/her psychological and physical job withdrawal. Moreover; committed employees are generally productive and go beyond their job descriptions in improving their organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s products and services. Researchers have found a positive link between Feedback Environment Scale and Employee commitment. This link is mediated by a third variable called Role Clarity, which is defined as the subjective feeling of having as much or not as much role relevant information as the person would like to have Lyons (1971). This study is aimed to explore this link in a Pakistani context and more specifically in the context of Islamabad, After the confirmation of such a link, mangers can adopt a number of measures to improve employeesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ satisfaction, their level of productivity and employee commitment. Research Objectives To measure the level of performance feedback (from supervisors and coworkers) received by the employees of different organizations, both of public and private sector operating in Islamabad city. To Measure the level of employee commitment of employees working in different organizations To explore the link between feedback environment and employee commitment To suggest specific measures to be adopted in order to increase the overall feedback environment and employee commitment in organizations Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Feedback Environment In the past, the feedback environment has been defined as the type of job performance information that employees perceive as being available to them (Herold Parsons, 1985).but according to the refined and most up-to-date definition; the feedback environment refers to the contextual aspects of day-to-day supervisor-subordinate and coworker-coworker feedback processes rather than to the formal performance appraisal feedback session (Steelman et al, 2004). Consequently, up to now, an organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s feedback environment has been defined as the amount and availability of positive and negative feedback from different sources (Steelman et al, 2004). 2.2 Measurement of Feedback Environment Feedback environment in an organization is measured through a new multifaceted instrument, the Feedback Environment Scale (FES), which helps inform the feedback process in organizations. This new instrument measures a much more comprehensive view of the feedback environment and is more relevant to the organizations of today and the responsibilities of 21st-century managers. FES may also be defined as a multifaceted construct with two major factors (Supervisor and Coworker) manifested in seven facets. Together, these seven facets reflect the contextual aspects surrounding the transmission of job performance feedback on a recurrent or daily basis (Steelman et al, 2004). It is clear that employees receive feedback information from various sources (Greller, 1980; Morrison, 1993) but some authors suggest that supervisor and coworker feedback sources are the most practical and relevant from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s point of view (Ashford, 1989). Thus, the FES postulates two factors called Supervisor Source and Coworker Source and the following seven specific facets within each of those source factors: source credibility, feedback quality, feedback delivery, frequency of favorable feedback, frequency of unfavorable feedback, source availability, and promoting feedback seeking (Steelman et al, 2004). Source Credibility is conceptualized as the feedback sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s expertise and trustworthiness (Giffin, 1967). Consistency and usefulness have been demonstrated to be important aspects of feedback quality (Greller, 1980; Hanser Muchinsky, 1978; Herold, Liden, Leatherwood, 1987). A feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perceptions of the sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s intentions in giving feedback will affect reactions and responses to the feedback (Fedor, Eder, Buckley, 1989). Favorable feedback is conceptualized as the perceived frequency of positive feedback such as compliments from supervisors and/or coworkers when from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view, his or her performance does in fact warrant positive feedback. Correspondingly, unfavorable feedback is conceptualized as the perceived frequency of negative feedback such as expressions of dissatisfaction and criticism from supervisors and/or coworkers when from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s vi ew, his or her performance warrants such feedback (Steelman et al, 2004). Supervisor and/or coworker source availability is operationalized as the perceived amount of contact an employee has with his or her supervisor and/or coworkers and the ease with which feedback can be obtained (Steelman et al, 2004). Feedback seeking is defined as the extent to which the environment is supportive or unsupportive of feedback seeking. It is the extent to which employees are encouraged or rewarded for seeking feedback and the degree to which employees feel comfortable asking for performance feedback (Williams et al, 1999). 2.3 Role Clarity Lyons (1971) defines role clarity as the subjective feeling of having as much or not as much role relevant information as the person would like to have. The importance of having role clarity (knowing the tasks and expectations of a job) has been shown in previous research that used both emotional and performance-related measures (Abramis, 1994; Jackson Schuler, 1985; Tubre Collins, 2000). Role clarity is a prerequisite for harmonious interactions with others in the role set (Mcgrath, 1976). The absence of role clarity leads to stress, intrapersonal tension and lowered job satisfaction (Cooper, Sloan Williams, 1988; Hall, 2004). Breaugh Colihan (1994) defined role ambiguity to be job ambiguity and indicated that job ambiguity possesses three distinct aspects: work methods, scheduling, and performance criteria. 2.4 Employee Commitment It is recognized that an employees commitment to an organization can be expressed in three particular ways: affective, continuance, and normative. Affective commitment is focused on an emotional attachment to the organization (Herscovitch, 2002). On the other hand, continuance commitment is when an employee stays with an organization based on a perceived cost of leaving (Herscovitch, 2002). In this case, the employee is staying because he/she thinks it will cost more to go find work elsewhere. Lastly, normative commitment refers to an employees moral obligation to stay with the organization (Herscovitch, 2002). This can arise due to the employee feeling that the organization has treated him/her well and therefore, he/she owes the organization a continued period of employment. In one sense, each type of commitment somewhat ties the individual to the organization; however, each impacts differently on the manner in which the employee conducts him/herself in the workplace. For example, a n employee with an affective commitment will often go above and beyond what is required of his/her position in order to assist the organization in meeting its goals. Employees with high affective commitment tend to be absent from work less frequently and display a higher work motivation and organizational citizenship (McShane, 2001). Continuance commitment, however, is negatively related to performance whereby employees tend to do simply what is required, have higher rates of absenteeism, and low motivation (Johns and Saks, 1996). 2.5 Feedback Environment, Role Clarity/Ambiguity and Employee Commitment Over recent years, there has been a surge of interest in the effects of the feedback environment on work-related outcomes (e.g. Norris-Watts Levy, 2004; Rosen et al., 2006). A favorable feedback environment is positively related to supervisory reported organizational citizenship behavior and that this relationship is partially mediated by affective commitment (Norris-Watts Levy, 2004). Another study tested a mediated model suggesting that the effects of the feedback environment on job satisfaction, and supervisory rated in-role and extra-role performance are mediated by perceptions of organizational politics. In general, this model was supported, again demonstrating the relationship between the feedback environment and several work-related outcomes (Rosen et al., 2006). A field experiment conducted by Tziner and Latham (1989) revealed increased work satisfaction and employee commitment when a goal-setting and feedback program was introduced, but it is not possible to draw the concl usion that this effect emanates from feedback only. Researchers have found a relationship between feedback and role ambiguity (Herold et al, 1987, Peiro et al, 1994, Sawyer, 1992, Teas, 1983, Vredenburgh, 1983). So, even though previous studies lend support to the hypothesis that feedback affects attitudes towards work, there is also a possibility that the uncertainty reducing effect of feedback is the link between feedback and work attitudes, through the intervening influence of role ambiguity. Resultantly, there is also support to hypothesize that feedback only indirectly affects attitude towards work with role ambiguity as a mediating variable (Anders et al, 1999). Mathieu Zajac (1990) conducted a meta-analysis of 48 studies and found that overall employee commitment was low when employees were unsure about what was expected of them (Role Ambiguity). In nine studies, Dunham, Grube, Castaneda (1994) found that employees understanding about the significance of their tasks were somewhat positively related to affective commitment, but not related to normative or continuance commitment. Workers need role clarity to be able to navigate on their own. To improve the opportunity for self feedback there appears a need to strengthen the connection between the individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s work and the organizational goals (Anders et al, 1999). Chapter 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK On the basis of literature review, a relationship between feedback environment and employee commitment was found, being mediated by a third variable, Role Clarity. The following hypothetical link between the variables was drawn and tested. 3.1 Operational Definitions 3.1.1 Feedback Environment (Independent Variable) Feedback Environment has been taken as the independent variable for this study which is defined by Steelman et al (2004) as the amount and availability of positive and negative feedback from different sources. As the feedback environment in organizations is generally measured using the Feedback environment Scale (FES) proposed by Steelman et al (2004), the same will be employed to measure the quality of feedback environment that takes into account two major feedback sources which are: Supervisor source Coworker source Feedback from each source has seven dimensions which are: 3.1.1.1- Source credibility Giffin (1967) defined source credibility as the feedback sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s expertise and trustworthiness. Perception of trustworthiness an individual imparts to other people. Factors that influence source credibility are expertise and reputation for honesty. 3.1.1.2- Feedback quality Feedback quality refers to its consistency and usefulness which are important aspects of feedback (Greller, 1980; Hanser Muchinsky, 1978; Herold, Liden, Leatherwood, 1987). 3.1.1.3- Feedback delivery It refers to the feedback environment in terms of sourceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s consideration and intentions in his or her delivery of the feedback (Steelman et al 2004). In simple words this dimension is related to the extent of empathy of the feedback source. 3.1.1.4- Favorable feedback Steelman et al (2004) defined favorable feedback as the perceived frequency of positive feedback such as compliments from supervisors and/or coworkers when from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view, his or her performance does in fact warrant positive feedback 3.1.1.5- Unfavorable feedback Unfavorable feedback is conceptualized as the perceived frequency of negative feedback such as expressions of dissatisfaction and criticism from supervisors and/or coworkers when from the feedback recipientà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view, his or her performance warrants such feedback (Steelman et al, 2004). 3.1.1.6- Source availability Supervisor and/or coworker source availability is defined as the perceived amount of contact an employee has with his or her supervisor and/or coworkers and the ease with which feedback can be obtained (Steelman et al, 2004). 3.1.1.7- Promoting feedback seeking Williams et al (1999) defined Feedback seeking is defined as the extent to which the environment is supportive or unsupportive of feedback seeking. It is the extent to which employees are encouraged or rewarded for seeking feedback and the degree to which employees feel comfortable asking for performance feedback Responses about each dimension relating to both the sources will be gathered using the FES Questionnaire, proposed by Steelman et al (2004) in their validation study of the FES. 3.2 Employee Commitment (Dependent Variable) For the purpose of this study employee commitment has been defined as an employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s psychological attachment to his/her organization. Mainly the three component model of employee commitment by Herscovitch (2002) is used, which says that the commitment level itself consists of three parts; affective, continuance and normative commitment. Somers (1995) defined Affective commitment as an employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s emotional attachment to an organizational goals and values. Normative commitment is a perceived duty to support the organization and its activities, whereas; continuance commitment is however interacted with affective commitment in predicting job withdrawal intentions and absenteeism. The level of employee commitment was measured using the employee commitment questionnaire by John Meyer Natalie Allen (1991). Figure 3.1: The Theoretical Relationship between Feedback Environment and Employee Commitment with the Mediating Effect of Role Clarity/Ambiguity 3.3 Role Clarity/Ambiguity (Mediating Variable) Role clarity is defined as the subjective feeling of having as much or not as much role relevant information as the person would like to have Lyons (1971). Or simply knowing the tasks and expectations of oneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s job is known as Role Clarity. From the previous studies there appeared a relationship between feedback and employee commitment with the mediating effect of role clarity/ambiguity, and it was conceived in this study that the quality of feedback environment leads to role clarity or ambiguity as feedback serves the purpose of clarifying an employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s role which leads to employee commitment (Mathieu Zajac 1990, Dunham, Grube, Castaneda 1994). Role Clarity was measured using the standardized questionnaire proposed by Rizzo et al (1970). 3.4 Hypotheses: The following seven hypotheses were tested to explore the link between the following: Supervisory Feedback and Subordinateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Role Clarity Coworker Feedback and Incumbentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Role Clarity Feedback Environment and Employee commitment Role Clarity and Employee commitment 3.5 Hypotheses Statements Hypothesis 1: Ho: There is no relationship between supervisory feedback and subordinateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s role clarity Hypothesis 1: H1: There is a relationship between supervisory feedback and subordinateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s role clarity Hypothesis 2: Ho: There is no relationship between coworker feedback and employee role clarity Hypothesis 2: H1: There is a relationship between coworker feedback and employee role clarity Hypothesis 3: Ho: There is no relationship between feedback environment and employee role clarity Hypothesis 3: H1: There is a relationship between feedback environment and employee role clarity Hypothesis 4: Ho: There is no relationship between supervisory feedback and employee commitment Hypothesis 4: H1: There is a relationship between supervisory feedback and employee commitment Hypothesis 5: Ho: There is no relationship between coworker feedback and employee commitment Hypothesis 5: H1: There is a relationship between coworker feedback and employee commitment Hypothesis 6: Ho: There is no relationship between feedback environment and employee commitment Hypothesis 6: H1: There is a relationship between feedback environment and employee commitment Hypothesis 7: Ho: There is no relationship between employee role clarity and employee commitment Hypothesis 7: H1: There is a relationship between employee role clarity and employee commitment Chapter 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Design is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing needed information. Having identified the variables of the study and developing the theoretical framework, the next step was to design the research in a way that the required data could be gathered and analyzed to arrive at a solution. A Survey was conducted, based on a questionnaire. The term questionnaire refers to a list of questions, usually printed, and submitted for replies that can be analyzed for usable information. 4.1 Purpose of the Study The research was of hypothesis-testing in nature. The characteristics of variables and their relationship were defined in the previous section. Hypotheses were formulated on the basis of relationships between the two main variables (feedback environment and employee commitment). Researches have shown that there is positive relationship between feedback environment and employee commitment. Those studies were conducted in different parts of the world and the current research is based on the hypotheses which are to be tested to find if there is a positive relationship between the said variables. 4.2 Type of Investigation The purpose of our research was to find out if there is relation between variables, the type of investigation chosen was correlation. 4.3 Extent of Researcher Interference with the Study The primary data was collected through the questionnaire. The data was collected in natural environment and the researcherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s interference was minimal. 4.4 Study Settings The research was conducted in natural environment where work proceeds normally, i.e. in non-contrived settings. The study was based on Field Experiment where all activities were occurring in natural work environment. 4.5 Unit of Analysis In this study, individuals were studied separately. Research team studied the feedback received from the two sources (supervisor and coworker) and through the questionnaire investigated the relevant variables and their relationship. 4.6 Sampling A sample is a subset of a larger population that contains its major characteristics. In this step the following decisions were taken: Who is to be sampled (sampling unit) How large a sample should be (sample size) How will sample units be selected (sampling technique) 4.7 Sampling Unit To get the representation from all levels of management and all types of organizations, employees form each layer of management were selected as sample from different organizations ranging from manufacturing to service, both from public and private sectors. Responses were gathered from the employees of the following organizations: Askari Bank, Balochistan Teachersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Training Academy, Balochistan University of Information Technology, Engineering Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Cantonment Hospital, Chiltan Ghee Mills, Civil Secretariat, Concern Worldwide, Habib Bank Ltd, Mercy Crops, National Bank, PTCL, Islamabad Electric Supply Company (QESCO), SME Bank, Sui Southern Gas Company Ltd (SSGC), Telecard, Telenor, UNDP and Warid Telecom 4.8 Sample Size The sample size for the study was 200. Employees from each of the above-mentioned organization were asked to respond the questionnaires. 4.9 Sampling Technique Probability sampling was used for the research; in such type of sampling each member of population has an equal chance of becoming a sample. 4.10 The Questionnaire The Questionnaire had the following sections: 4.10.1 Section-1 (Demographics) The first section investigated about the respondentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s demographical characteristics including: Age Gender Marital Status Qualification Managerial level Nature of work Experience in years The respondents were not asked to mention their names or disclose their identity and it was ensured to keep the information confidential. 4.10.2 Section-2 3 (Supervisory and Coworker Feedback Measurement) These sections contained questions about the supervisory and coworker feedback received by the respondents focusing on the following dimensions: Source credibility Feedback quality Feedback delivery Favorable feedback Unfavorable feedback Source availability Promoting feedback seeking The items of this section were obtained from the validation study of feedback environment (Steelman et al, 2004). 4.10.3 Section-4 (Employee commitment Measurement) This section contained questions about the level of employee commitment of the respondents. 4.10.4 Section-5 (Role Clarity Measurement) This section contained questions measuring the Role Clarity of the respondents. 4.11 Data Collection In this phase the research moved from papers to the field. Data was gathered in the form of responses from the respondents. Questionnaire was used as a tool to collect data and 100% of the respondents were surveyed through it. As mentioned above different organizations from public and private sector were visited to collect the responses. Questionnaires were distributed and taken back from the respondents after two to three days. Total time taken to complete the data collection process was two weeks. The respondents were guided about filling the questionnaires and the queries were responded properly. Chapter 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 5. Hypothesis Testing All seven hypotheses of the study were tested on the following parameters: Confidence level: (1-ÃŽÂ ±) = 0.95 (95%) Level of Significance: ÃŽÂ ± = 0.05 Statistic used: t-statistic Sample size: n = 200 Table 5.1: Results of Hypothesis Testing Hypotheses t-calculated t-tabulated Computation Result 1 2.20 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 2 1.97 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 3 2.13 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 4 3.74 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 5 6.88 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 6 6.18 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho 7 1.99 +1.96 tcal>ttab Rejected Ho Where: tcal = the calculated value of t-statistic ttab = the tabulated value of t-statistic It is clear from the results of table 5.1, that all seven alternative hypotheses were accepted as the value of t-calculated found be higher than the value of t-tabulated regarding each hypothesis. This shows that there is a link between each of the independent variable (feedback from supervisor and coworker source, feedback environment and role clarity) with the dependent variable (employee commitment). 5.1 Correlation Analysis The second analysis involved regressing each of the predictors on the outcome variable i.e. employee commitment. The results are presented in table 5.2 A correlation matrix was developed for Supervisory Feedback, Coworker feedback and Role clarity with Employee Commitment. According to the results, all the three variables were positively associated with Employee Commitment. The association represents a positive linear relationship between the dependent variable; Employee Commitment and each of the independent variables. Table 5.2: Correlation Matrix for Employee Commitment Variable Supervisory Feedback Coworker feedback Role Clarity Commitment Supervisory Feedback 1.000 0.534** 0.123** 0.257** Coworker feedback 0.534** 1.000 0.139** 0.439** Role Clarity 0.123** 0.139** 1.000 0.097** Commitment 0.257** 0.439** 0.097** 1.000 ** p Coworker feedback was most strongly associated with Employee Commitment (0.439), followed by supervisory feedback (0.257) and role clarity (0.097). All relationships were statistically significant at p The correlation analysis of employee commitment as shown in table 5.1 indicates that all the associations (between x and y variables) were positive. This signifies that a positive linear relationship exists between x and y variable. Coworker feedback was most strongly related with employee commitment, followed by role clarity and supervisory feedback. All relations were statistically significant at 0.01 levels. 5.3 Regression Analysis The value of R2 was 0.195. The first independent variable, coworker feedback [0.419, P Table 5.3: Regression Analysis of Feedback Environment at workplace (Dependent Variable= Employee Commitment Variable Coefficient Standard Error Standardized Beta Intercept 1.783** 0.262 - Supervisory Feedback 0.029** 0.077 0.029 Coworker feedback 0.388** 0.071 0.419 Role Clarity